Rachel Carson

The influence of Rachel Carson has profoundly impacted the twenty-first century because of her contribution to the environmentalist movement through her research and writing. Carson's most famous and influential book, Silent Spring, sparked controversy because it revealed the devastating effects that pesticides have on the natural world and demonstrated the necessity for protection of the environment. The government took notice and passed various laws to protect nature by limiting the use of pesticides and began to pay more attention to environmental matters. It is largely because of the efforts of Carson that there is a general concern for the environment and its protection today.

Before Carson, there were others who advocated conservation. The natural beauty of America, especially on the frontier, enchanted Americans of the nineteenth century, including writers and artists. One of these people was Henry David Thoreau, whose book, Walden, led many to consider him a pioneer of ecology and conservatism (Newman and Schmalbach 204). But the protection of the environment was not yet a major concern. Before the industrialization of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, American society was mainly agricultural and farmers had a respectful relationship with the land in which nothing was wasted or abused. The destructive use of chemicals and defacing machinery was not yet commonplace and the concept of waste was virtually unheard of.

But as industrialization became the norm of American society, and in other corners of the world as well, general respect for the environment gradually decreased. Americans especially had the mentality that natural resources were inexhaustible and that the land existed for humankind to conquer and use to serve their purposes. In spite of this general attitude, some individuals began to agitate for conservation. The conservationist movement was aroused under the leadership of Theodore Roosevelt in the early twentieth century. He was a militant naturalist and lover of nature. He believed that the nation's natural resources had to be protected or at least used wisely. Roosevelt created national reserves and parks, such as Yellowstone, and created the National Conservation Commission (Newman and Schmalbach 432).

But it was because of the efforts of Rachel Carson in the mid-twentieth century that the modern environmentalist movement was created and brought to the forefront of the public conscience. Environmentalism was different than conservation because it involved a concern for environmental quality especially with respect to the control of pollution while conservation usually entailed the preservation of natural resources.

Rachel Louise Carson was born on May 27, 1907, in the town of Springdale, Pennsylvania, near the industrial center of Pittsburgh. Throughout her childhood, Carson's parents, Maria and Robert Carson, instilled in her a love of nature. They refused to allow coaling companies to destroy their land and taught Rachel to be respectful of the land and "skeptical of big corporations' promises" (Jezer 25). Maria Carson, a former schoolteacher, especially had a profound impact upon her youngest daughter's life. She stimulated Rachel's love of nature and encouraged her daughter to "develop a reverence for life and a respect for nature's laws" (Jezer 26). Rachel and her mother would often go for walks in the woods surrounding their farm and Maria would teach the names of various plants and animals to her daughter.

Maria also encouraged Rachel to persevere and follow her ambitions despite sexual stereotypes and limitations that were present for women of this period. Maria knew that Rachel was special and encouraged her to pursue her interests and develop her mind (Jezer 27). Rachel was different from other children in her school because of her innate personality and she was somewhat of a loner because of her shyness and differences from the other students. Unlike most children her age, she did not learn because it was compulsory, but rather to satisfy her own curiosity while earning perfect grades in the process.

Rachel was first published in the St. Nicholas literary magazine for children at the young age of ten and she developed a passion for writing as well as reading (Matthiessen). She especially enjoyed stories that were concerned with nature and wildlife. But Rachel became especially fascinated by everything related to the sea. She devoured books championing its romantic allure. Carson came to believe that her "destiny was somehow linked with the sea" (Jezer 39). As Rachel grew up, the new field of science called oceanography was also developing as new technology made extensive study of the sea possible. Carson became not only a pioneer as a successful woman in a man's world but also as a successful scientific writer in a newly developing field.

In 1925, Carson entered the Pennsylvania College for Women in the midst of the Roaring Twenties. But unlike other young adults, Rachel concentrated on school and did not usually partake in frivolous activities. She majored in English for her first two years of college with the intent of becoming a writer and wrote many pieces for the school literary magazine--often focusing on the sea. But in her sophomore year, Rachel became fascinated with biology and the study of the natural world and switched her major in her junior year to biology. Many criticized Carson for doing this because they believed she was pursuing a hopeless dream. Women were generally accepted as writers but female scientists in all fields, including biology, were extremely rare and faced many restrictions based on their sex (Jezer 37).

Later, explaining her conflicting thoughts over whether to pursue English or biology, Carson said, "I thought I had to be one or the other; it never occurred to me, or apparently to anyone else, that I could combine the two careers" (qtd. in Brooks 17). But Rachel was able to combine her two loves, eventually.

Carson graduated magna cum laude in 1929 and went on to receive her master's degree in marine zoology at John Hopkins University on a full scholarship. The next obstacle was to overcome sexual discrimination to obtain a job that would allow Carson to make good use of her abilities. There were few opportunities for female scientists except as teachers and the field of science concerned with the environment and conservationism was experiencing a setback because of the Great Depression. But when Franklin Roosevelt created his New Deal, many jobs were created that involved the protection of natural resources because he was an ardent conservationist. Conservation became a "government priority" and attitudes toward women were changing (due in large part to the influence of Eleanor Roosevelt) to break down many of the former barriers (Jezer 47).

In 1935, Carson secured a part time job in the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries writing radio scripts for a program about marine life. Carson's internal conflict between writing and science "resolved itself when she realized that she could successfully use her literary skills to communicate information about nature" (Jezer 50). She later said, "It dawned on me that by becoming a biologist I had given myself something to write about" (qtd. in Jezer 50). In 1936, Carson went to work full time for the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries (later known as the Fish and Wildlife Service under the Department of the Interior) as a junior aquatic biologist and gradually worked her way up the bureaucratic ladder until her resignation in 1952 (Brooks 71). This job involved much research and, as a result, Carson amassed a wide base of knowledge on various aspects of aquatic life.

Carson published her first book, Under the Sea-Wind, in 1941, but it passed by largely ignored by the general public--although it was critically acclaimed--because the United States became involved in World War II a little over a month after the book's publication. Carson's goal for this book was stated in its preface: "To make the sea and its life as vivid a reality for those who may read the book as it has become for me during the past decade" (qtd. in Jezer 52). After the financial failure of this book, Carson returned to her old habit of writing for magazines. But during the war years, she had little time for writing, anyway, because the American troops were in sore need of oceanographic information to aid their efforts in the Pacific and elsewhere.

It was in 1951 that Rachel Carson received the renown she deserved. Her second book, The Sea Around Us, became an instant best seller and was acclaimed by critics, scientists, and the general public. Carson's purpose for this book was "to write an easily understandable yet scientifically accurate book on the sea that incorporated the extensive oceanographic research done during the war" as well as the knowledge she had acquired throughout her career (Jezer 61). Carson won many literary awards for The Sea Around Us as well as several honorary degrees. Some could not believe that Carson was a woman because of the vast scientific knowledge present in the book. One man said, "I assume from the author's knowledge that he must be a man" (qtd. in Brooks 132).

Carson became an instant celebrity but she did not desire fame. She was a very private and shy person and having to give a large amount of acceptance speeches for her various awards as well as deal with enthusiastic (and sometimes eccentric) fans created a constant strain. With the success of The Sea Around Us, Carson's earlier book, Under the Sea-Wind, was reprinted and also became an instant best seller, resulting in Carson having two books on the nonfiction best seller list at once (Brooks 130). With this success, Carson quit her job with government and became a full time writer. Her trilogy of the sea was completed with her next book, The Edge of the Sea, published in 1955, which also became a best seller.

After establishing herself as a prominent writer and scientist, Carson embarked on an immense project that resulted in a book for which she has gained worldwide renown and that has tremendously impacted the way humans and their governments view the environment. According to Marty Jezer:

This "alienation from nature" was manifested in the increasingly widespread use of pesticides. In 1952, Dwight D. Eisenhower was elected president and during his administration, many of the conservationist policies enacted under the New Deal were "reversed" (Jezer 73). The new secretary of the interior, Douglas McKay, did not consider conservation to be an important priority and sought to decrease federal regulation of natural resources while making them more available to those corporations or other groups who would abuse them. Officials in the government who were known conservationists were either dismissed or reduced in status. These measures worried Carson and other environmentalists who were concerned with the reckless destruction of the natural environment as well as the new threat of nuclear power that held devastating potential.

In 1957, Carson's friend, Olga Owens Huckins, informed her of the increasing concern over the use of pesticides. The pesticide known as DDT had been used near her home to deal with a mosquito problem but seemed to decrease the numbers of other wildlife, such as birds and beneficial insects, rather than the mosquito populatoin. The government continually asserted that DDT was safe for all forms of life except for those malignant insects that it was meant to destroy. Studies had been conducted to test the safety of DDT, but the results were not conclusive. Some applauded the usefulness of pesticides while others believed that they were harmful for wildlife.

As the use of pesticides became more commonplace, Carson discovered during her research that there was government documentation of the dangers of pesticides but that this information was ignored or suppressed by government officials (Jezer 79). The government had actually become a supporter and advocator of DDT and other pesticides as well as the companies that produced them and undertook spraying programs themselves in some cases. Also, as the troublesome insects developed a resistance to DDT, stronger pesticides were developed that were sometimes up to twenty times more potent and increasingly more dangerous (Brooks 234).

Pesticides posed more problems than solutions. In the past, farmers had been able to deal effectively with any insect problems they may have had without inflicting any damage on the environment and they had mainly experienced surpluses rather than shortages due to malignant insects. But with World War II came the development of pesticides and people began to take advantage of them and use them carelessly because it was the supposedly easy and efficient way to deal with insect problems and people came to rely on these chemicals (Jezer 14). Also, pesticides not only eliminated harmful insects but also killed beneficial insects (such as ladybugs and grasshoppers) that would actually help crops and control the populations of other insects.

Carson was shocked by the information she uncovered during her extensive research on the subject. She could not believe that the government and corporations would have such a reckless attitude towards the environment. Carson said:

Carson took about four years to research and write Silent Spring and included past instances of damage that pesticides had inflicted and proposed alternative methods that could be taken to reduce the use of pesticides or eliminate them altogether. Carson advocated solutions that would be in accordance with the natural order and biology. Such measures might include the use of "beneficial" insects that "fed on pests" or the application of scientific methods that could prevent certain insects from reproducing or the use of "bacterial agents and viral strains" that would target the insects and be safe for humans (Jezer 92). Carson said that these approaches were "based on understanding of the living organisms they seek to control and of the whole fabric of life to which organisms belong" (qtd. in Jezer 92).

The most controversial section of the book was that dealing with the effects of pesticides on human health and genetics. Carson suggested that pesticides could cause genetic defects, stillbirths, and cancers among other diseases. This theory was affirmed in later years as more research was done on the subject (Jezer 93).

Carson intended for her book to serve as a warning for America and the world of the devastating outcome that could result from the irresponsible use of pesticides. She developed a metaphor that was demonstrative of what could happen if the abuse of pesticides and the destruction of the environment continued and this became the underlying theme of the entire book as well as the source for the title. The metaphor is explained in a chapter of Silent Spring:

Silent Spring was published in 1962 and instantly sparked a heated controversy. Those who had personal interests in the pesticide business, such as corporations, business leaders, and some government officials (especially in the Department of Agriculture), denounced the book as well as Carson while denying all accusations against themselves. According to Paul Brooks, "Perhaps not since the classic controversy over Charles Darwin's The Origin of Species just over a century earlier had a single book been more bitterly attacked by those who felt their interests threatened" (293).

There was a general consensus among those who opposed the book that it had to be suppressed. But Carson's thorough research made it virtually impossible for anyone to disprove her factual information and so her opponents attempted to discredit her personally. Some said this "meticulous scientist was a 'hysterical woman' unqualified to write such a book" (Matthiessen). Others believed that "the work was part of a communist plot to undermine the economies of the Western nations" (Jezer 96). Carson's book was mocked, distorted, and ridiculed, but this did not result in lessening its immense influence on the world and government policies as well as public opinion.

Despite the fierce opposition, Carson's book was extremely popular with the general public and conservationists. Direct results were achieved under the administration of John F. Kennedy when he advocated a reevaluation of federal pesticide regulations. The government was facing increasing political pressure to change its policies and Carson's book demonstrated that the problems posed by pesticides could no longer be ignored. The report issued by the government in response to Kennedy's request supported Carson's book and the facts within it.

This report forced everyone to admit that a problem did exist and now the question was what the people were willing to do about it (Brooks 308). By the end of 1962, over forty "pesticide-regulating bills" had been introduced in state legislatures across the country (Jezer 99). In 1964, Congress amended federal law to "shift the burden of proof in safety debates" (Jezer 99). Manufacturers now had to prove the safety of their products before they could market them.

Due to its domestic success, Silent Spring was translated into many languages and impacted the future policies of other countries beside America. A worldwide concern over pesticides was initiated and laws were passed to regulate chemical companies in various countries. England was almost as profoundly influenced as America was. Other countries, such as Sweden, often passed legislation that was more advanced than the measures taken by the United States government.

Unfortunately, Rachel Carson died in April of 1964 from breast cancer before she could witness some of the greatest changes caused by her book. Carson became an environmental crusader and influenced the public to support the environmentalist cause (Jezer 19). In 1970, under the Nixon Administration, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was created to enforce regulations protecting America's air, land, and water as a response to the growing concern for the environment and the Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OHSA) was formed soon after. (Bailey, Kennedy, and Cohen 971). The year of 1970 also witnessed the celebration of the first Earth Day. As people became concerned about the effects of pesticides, they gradually expanded their attention to include other forms of pollution such as that of the air and water, acid rain, oil spills, toxic waste, and adulterated food (Jezer 21).

Before Carson wrote Silent Spring, the general public was not greatly concerned with the environment. But with this book, people began to assume responsibility for the natural environment and the modern environmentalist movement had begun. Peter Matthiessen asserts that Silent Spring is the "cornerstone of the new environmentalism" and Paul Brooks refers to it as "one of those rare books that change the course of history" by altering the "direction of man's thinking" (227). It is difficult to imagine what would have become of the environment if Rachel Carson had not intervened to raise public awareness. Today there is still an unacceptable amount of damage done to the environment by chemicals and other processes, but there is a public consciousness that is constantly fighting the battle for a pristine and unadulterated environment.

Silent Spring had a special focus on the relationship between humans and how they perceived the natural world. According to Paul Brooks:

In a letter to her friend in 1962, Carson explained her reason for her devotion to the environment and its protection:

Rachel Carson was a pioneer for women scientists as well as for the growing spirit of environmentalism and her book did bring about an immensely substantial change and set into motion future movements that would continue to fight for the environment and its protection. America's traditionally passive and indifferent attitude towards the environment was altered to kindle a deep reverence for nature and a fierce desire for its defense. The modern environmentalist movement had begun and it remains as a vital concern today.

This webpage created by A.H. for History and Thought of Western Man, Rich East High School. Last update, 27 May 2003.

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Rachel Carson's Books

Introduction

Background

Early Life

Decisions

First Books

Concern about "Alienation from Nature"

Silent Spring

Impact

Works Cited